Is the United States a democracy, a republic, or an oligarchy?

When he left office in January 2025, President Biden warned an oligarchy was taking over the United States. Later that winter, Senator Bernie Sanders (I-VT) and Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (D-NY) launched a “Fighting Oligarchy Tour” across the United States. Other activist groups – such as “50501” – say we should defend democracy against plutocracy. Sometimes conservatives push back on the word “democracy” and argue that the United States is instead a “republic.” So who is right? This article breaks down what these groups mean when they talk about government in the United States.

The formal definition of oligarchy

When political scientists talk about an oligarchy, they are referring to a government controlled by a small group of powerful individuals. Those individuals may gain power through wealth, nobility, religious status, and/or military rank – but generally not through free and fair elections. The term “oligarchy” also usually implies that those powerful individuals are corrupt and personally benefitting from their role in government.

Sen. Sanders has described an oligarchy as “a government of the billionaires, by the billionaires and for the billionaires.”

Other activist groups, such as 50501, have described the United States as a plutocracy. That is very similar to an oligarchy. A plutocracy is a government controlled by the wealthy.

Is the United States an oligarchy?

Many voters in the United States – from both parties – may feel like their vote is overpowered by rich campaign donors with special interests.

Still, most of the government leaders in Washington, D.C. are elected by voters. Officials appointed by the president must be confirmed by a vote of the U.S. Senate, which serves as another check on any one person’s power.

Elon Musk, a billionaire businessman, is a notable exception to that rule. President Trump appointed Musk as a “special government employee” and did not seek approval from the U.S. Senate. Musk now wields significant power in the federal government, and his role is legally ambiguous.

Ultimately, whether the United States has crossed the line into an oligarchy is subjective.

Is the United States a democracy or a republic?

Most voters, if asked, would probably describe the United States as a democracy. That word generally encompasses many forms of governments that choose their leaders through free and fair elections. Throughout history, U.S. presidents from all parties have referred to the United States as a democracy.

In recent years, some conservative thinkers have pushed back on the term “democracy” because it implies policy decisions are made directly by voters; in the United States most policy decisions are made by elected representatives. Those critics often prefer to describe the United States as a “constitutional republic.” In that form of government decisions are made by elected representatives, who are in turn bound by the rights and restrictions in the U.S. Constitution. 

Standing alone, the word "republic" is used to describe a state or country led by some form of representative government. 

From the technical perspective of a political scientist, “democracy” is an umbrella term that covers many forms of representative government, including a constitutional republic.

There are also some forms of direct democracy in the United States, such as citizen referendums. For example, in 2016 Massachusetts voters legalized marijuana after the issue was placed on a statewide ballot.

Not all states allow this form of governing, however. New Hampshire, for example, does not allow these citizen referendums. Learn more about the debates around New Hampshire election laws on our topic page.